This article, written by Katie Dillon, Maggy Ryan, and Emily St. Marie, was published in the Global Vantage in the spring of 2011.
I have always been a typical girl. Not an average human being that happens to be of the female gender—a typical girl. Toy trucks never amused me, nor did football, fast cars, or the color blue. Tea parties and Barbies entertained me for most of my childhood, as they did for most of my friends. Except for one girl: my sister.
When I was little, about four or five, my little sister—who is two years my junior—and I would spend countless hours playing “house.” Well, not really house, more like dress up in our favorite costumes and run around looking for attention from the rest of the family. Almost every time we played, she dressed up in overalls and a hard hat as a construction worker, while I wore sequins and boas like a model. Of course, she was younger than I was, and, like many children that age, she didn’t know that it was unusual for a girl to want to be a manly construction worker.
Many children of young age are often androgynous, if only for a few years. This androgyny stems from innocence and ignorance. Young children have no sense of how a girl should act or dress; they have no idea that boys are supposed to be tough and never cry. Only once we reach a certain point of understanding do we start to define ourselves as either feminine or masculine in society’s view. Yet, as we grow older, some of us choose to cross or blur the line between male and female and their attached stereotypes. For example, going back to my sister and me, although I used to adore all things girly and she used to be a spunky tomboy, our roles have reversed as we have grown older. Now, I am the one shopping in the men’s section, and she has finally begun to accept that pink is a pretty decent color.
Luckily, in America, people are generally accepting of the idea that gender is fluid and is not black and white—or should I say blue and pink? It is not unusual to see women in the military, and it is quite common for men to become teachers and stylists, professions that were previously considered feminine. The United States is an open-minded nation, and while individuals and groups here and there still follow strict rules regarding gender roles, the United States as a whole is tolerant and progressive when it comes to feminism, sexuality, and gender.
Many people hold the opinion that the West is years ahead of Asian cultures in women’s rights—and they might be right. To illustrate this, my fellow students and I will compare American society with South Korean society.
We students at Pacific Ridge School live in a country and era where women are as free as men, so we interviewed our Korean students to get a real-life perspective of women in South Korea. My schoolmates and I have built relationships with women studying at Ewha Womans University in Seoul through our service- learning group, LingoOnline, and we teach them English once a week via Skype. Our students love not only learning about American culture, but also sharing Korean culture with us. Through this cultural exchange, we have discovered that gender equality is not a universal concept, and we are determined to figure out why. Through both research and interviews, we have concluded that Korean history, religion, culture, and media all play parts in restricting the advancement of women’s rights.
The roots of South Korea’s discrimination against women stem from ancient Korean culture. The indigenous religion of the people was Shamanism until China introduced Buddhism to Korea in 372 AD. Buddhism is a belief that one is born into a cycle of suffering: birth, life and death, and rebirth. This cycle continues until one reaches Nirvana, the state of enlightenment. A woman can reach Nirvana, but she cannot attain the title of a Buddha, a Brahma king, or other high spiritual accreditation. During Buddha's lifetime in India, an order for women, the Bhikkhunis, was established shortly after the order for men, the Bhikkhus. While this is seemingly “equal,” there were eight rules placed upon the Bhikkhunis that gave the Bhikkhus the irreversible power to preside over the proceedings and status of the Bhikkhunis. The order of the women had entered a decline after Buddha’s death and is no longer in practice, whereas the Bikkhu order still exists today.
Although these orders did not originate in Korea, the ancient mindset of gender discrimination came along with the religion. This mindset is unrelenting even through changes in the religion itself. When Confucianism came to Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty in the 1300s, followed shortly after by the Joseon Dynasty, higher education centers were established upon Confucian curriculum, and both the social use of Confucian ideals and a patriarchal family system were encouraged.
Confucianism is based on the belief that every man should know his given place. A ruler is a ruler and should be treated as such; a subject is a subject and should be subordinate to the ruler. A father is a father, and he is to be treated as a father, respected and holding authority, yet he is subservient to the ruler. The idea that a woman’s place is in the home to keep house, cook, bear sons, and answer to the men stems from Confucianism, and this idea is still the norm in Korean society today.
While women are certainly not yet considered equal to men in Korean society, stereotypes are diminishing and rights are increasing. The national constitution prohibits any act of discrimination based on sex and declares female and male to be equal individuals. In 1948, women won the right to vote. The Equal Employment Opportunity Act passed in 1987. In 1989, the Family Law was revised to state that all family inheritance must be distributed equally among daughters and sons, as opposed to the tradition of having the first son inherit all family possessions and real estate. The Basic Women’s Development Act of 1995 was passed to encourage women’s participation in economical, political, social, and cultural fields. The Labour Standards Act, passed by the Korean Ministry of Labour, provides safer working conditions for women and minors, as well as prohibits them from being employed for any work that would be “detrimental to morality or health,” working for more than two hours overtime each day and during dark hours and holidays. The Special Act for the Punishment of Domestic Violence came into effect on July 1, 1998 and allows women to seek protection from spousal abuse.
All of these laws have changed the legal standing of women for the better but have not eliminated the social and cultural stigmas against women.
Despite all the laws protecting women and their rights, women in Korea still do not enjoy the same opportunities as men. My student Jinsun, with whom I have made contact through my service-learning group LingoOnline, explained that even with equal employment laws, it is still hard for women to find work. In many cases the equal employment laws work against women. This is because employers must by law give a pregnant woman thirty days paid leave both before and after giving birth. Pregnant women must also be given easier workloads while still receiving their regular pay, resulting in companies trying to avoid hiring women. “After you give birth to the baby and get maternity leave, you can’t go back,” Jinsun said. “The companies don’t like those women, so it’s really hard to raise kids in Korea. Many young couples just give up raising kids and live together without starting a family.”
Jinsun believes that Korea’s discrimination against women is both discomforting to and limiting for them. She explained her observations of male supremacy: “In Korea, men usually try to deal with everything. When [my boyfriend and I] dated, he always carried my bag; it’s common in Korea nowadays. Among many young couples, the man carries the girlfriend’s bag. I think the men have some philosophy that they should protect their girlfriend and provide every comfort. It’s a very passive attitude. I want it to change, because when people are dating, it’s okay. However, when they get married, the women are still very passive and they obey the men’s order or men’s decision. Nowadays it’s better; but still, many women follow the decisions made by the man and endure his decisions.”
To better understand this lifestyle, we envisioned Jinsun’s situation in America. In America, we do have the same stereotype that men must be bold and brave, and that they must protect women. However, we realize that there is much more freedom in the realm of relationships in America. Although we do have such stereotypes, it is not uncommon to see confident women approach less assertive men in a relationship.
Another influence on Korean culture is advertisements aimed at each gender. We found the following ads to be particularly effective at establishing the difference between the two genders.
I have always been a typical girl. Not an average human being that happens to be of the female gender—a typical girl. Toy trucks never amused me, nor did football, fast cars, or the color blue. Tea parties and Barbies entertained me for most of my childhood, as they did for most of my friends. Except for one girl: my sister.
When I was little, about four or five, my little sister—who is two years my junior—and I would spend countless hours playing “house.” Well, not really house, more like dress up in our favorite costumes and run around looking for attention from the rest of the family. Almost every time we played, she dressed up in overalls and a hard hat as a construction worker, while I wore sequins and boas like a model. Of course, she was younger than I was, and, like many children that age, she didn’t know that it was unusual for a girl to want to be a manly construction worker.
Many children of young age are often androgynous, if only for a few years. This androgyny stems from innocence and ignorance. Young children have no sense of how a girl should act or dress; they have no idea that boys are supposed to be tough and never cry. Only once we reach a certain point of understanding do we start to define ourselves as either feminine or masculine in society’s view. Yet, as we grow older, some of us choose to cross or blur the line between male and female and their attached stereotypes. For example, going back to my sister and me, although I used to adore all things girly and she used to be a spunky tomboy, our roles have reversed as we have grown older. Now, I am the one shopping in the men’s section, and she has finally begun to accept that pink is a pretty decent color.
Luckily, in America, people are generally accepting of the idea that gender is fluid and is not black and white—or should I say blue and pink? It is not unusual to see women in the military, and it is quite common for men to become teachers and stylists, professions that were previously considered feminine. The United States is an open-minded nation, and while individuals and groups here and there still follow strict rules regarding gender roles, the United States as a whole is tolerant and progressive when it comes to feminism, sexuality, and gender.
Many people hold the opinion that the West is years ahead of Asian cultures in women’s rights—and they might be right. To illustrate this, my fellow students and I will compare American society with South Korean society.
We students at Pacific Ridge School live in a country and era where women are as free as men, so we interviewed our Korean students to get a real-life perspective of women in South Korea. My schoolmates and I have built relationships with women studying at Ewha Womans University in Seoul through our service- learning group, LingoOnline, and we teach them English once a week via Skype. Our students love not only learning about American culture, but also sharing Korean culture with us. Through this cultural exchange, we have discovered that gender equality is not a universal concept, and we are determined to figure out why. Through both research and interviews, we have concluded that Korean history, religion, culture, and media all play parts in restricting the advancement of women’s rights.
The roots of South Korea’s discrimination against women stem from ancient Korean culture. The indigenous religion of the people was Shamanism until China introduced Buddhism to Korea in 372 AD. Buddhism is a belief that one is born into a cycle of suffering: birth, life and death, and rebirth. This cycle continues until one reaches Nirvana, the state of enlightenment. A woman can reach Nirvana, but she cannot attain the title of a Buddha, a Brahma king, or other high spiritual accreditation. During Buddha's lifetime in India, an order for women, the Bhikkhunis, was established shortly after the order for men, the Bhikkhus. While this is seemingly “equal,” there were eight rules placed upon the Bhikkhunis that gave the Bhikkhus the irreversible power to preside over the proceedings and status of the Bhikkhunis. The order of the women had entered a decline after Buddha’s death and is no longer in practice, whereas the Bikkhu order still exists today.
Although these orders did not originate in Korea, the ancient mindset of gender discrimination came along with the religion. This mindset is unrelenting even through changes in the religion itself. When Confucianism came to Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty in the 1300s, followed shortly after by the Joseon Dynasty, higher education centers were established upon Confucian curriculum, and both the social use of Confucian ideals and a patriarchal family system were encouraged.
Confucianism is based on the belief that every man should know his given place. A ruler is a ruler and should be treated as such; a subject is a subject and should be subordinate to the ruler. A father is a father, and he is to be treated as a father, respected and holding authority, yet he is subservient to the ruler. The idea that a woman’s place is in the home to keep house, cook, bear sons, and answer to the men stems from Confucianism, and this idea is still the norm in Korean society today.
While women are certainly not yet considered equal to men in Korean society, stereotypes are diminishing and rights are increasing. The national constitution prohibits any act of discrimination based on sex and declares female and male to be equal individuals. In 1948, women won the right to vote. The Equal Employment Opportunity Act passed in 1987. In 1989, the Family Law was revised to state that all family inheritance must be distributed equally among daughters and sons, as opposed to the tradition of having the first son inherit all family possessions and real estate. The Basic Women’s Development Act of 1995 was passed to encourage women’s participation in economical, political, social, and cultural fields. The Labour Standards Act, passed by the Korean Ministry of Labour, provides safer working conditions for women and minors, as well as prohibits them from being employed for any work that would be “detrimental to morality or health,” working for more than two hours overtime each day and during dark hours and holidays. The Special Act for the Punishment of Domestic Violence came into effect on July 1, 1998 and allows women to seek protection from spousal abuse.
All of these laws have changed the legal standing of women for the better but have not eliminated the social and cultural stigmas against women.
Despite all the laws protecting women and their rights, women in Korea still do not enjoy the same opportunities as men. My student Jinsun, with whom I have made contact through my service-learning group LingoOnline, explained that even with equal employment laws, it is still hard for women to find work. In many cases the equal employment laws work against women. This is because employers must by law give a pregnant woman thirty days paid leave both before and after giving birth. Pregnant women must also be given easier workloads while still receiving their regular pay, resulting in companies trying to avoid hiring women. “After you give birth to the baby and get maternity leave, you can’t go back,” Jinsun said. “The companies don’t like those women, so it’s really hard to raise kids in Korea. Many young couples just give up raising kids and live together without starting a family.”
Jinsun believes that Korea’s discrimination against women is both discomforting to and limiting for them. She explained her observations of male supremacy: “In Korea, men usually try to deal with everything. When [my boyfriend and I] dated, he always carried my bag; it’s common in Korea nowadays. Among many young couples, the man carries the girlfriend’s bag. I think the men have some philosophy that they should protect their girlfriend and provide every comfort. It’s a very passive attitude. I want it to change, because when people are dating, it’s okay. However, when they get married, the women are still very passive and they obey the men’s order or men’s decision. Nowadays it’s better; but still, many women follow the decisions made by the man and endure his decisions.”
To better understand this lifestyle, we envisioned Jinsun’s situation in America. In America, we do have the same stereotype that men must be bold and brave, and that they must protect women. However, we realize that there is much more freedom in the realm of relationships in America. Although we do have such stereotypes, it is not uncommon to see confident women approach less assertive men in a relationship.
Another influence on Korean culture is advertisements aimed at each gender. We found the following ads to be particularly effective at establishing the difference between the two genders.
As you can tell from the pictures, there are obvious stereotypes regarding gender in advertisements in Korean culture. For example, in this ad for children’s accessories, the separate pictures for the boy’s line and the girl’s line demonstrate the general ideas behind how women are perceived in Korea. The glaring difference between the opposing color schemes is a common advertising technique to visually split femininity and masculinity.
While these highly visible traits make the distinction obvious, other ways these pictures divide gender are more subtle. First, the environment the children are placed in makes a bold statement. The girl is in her closet, surrounded by clothes, bows, and frills. Her posture is slightly bent to the side, in a cute, submissive way. The picture is very cramped, creating a slightly claustrophobic feeling. What is the little girl doing in her closet? It appears that she is thinking about what she is going to wear that day—so many cute things to choose from!
Now, how about the boy’s ad? In this photo, ships and planets surround him. He is clothed in futuristic clothing and gear. The deep realm of space stretches into infinity before him, and the boy has a strong, powerful stance, his back facing the camera. It seems as though he is pondering where to explore. Compared to the young boy’s thoughts, the girl’s seem petty and trivial.
We must ask ourselves: Is this what men think women dream of? Shoes and purses? Can only men be adventurers, scientists, and astronauts? While advertisements may not seem like a driving force behind gender inequality, the media does play a huge role, for better or for worse.
These two examples of Korean advertisement, along with countless others, were found in the English blog “The Grand Narrative,” which focuses on Korean sociology through gender, media, and popular culture. Written by James Turnbull, who currently resides in Korea, the blog has discussed South Korean feminism multiple times, stating that a lot of advertising, along with other aspects of Korean culture, is still discriminatory against females.
For example, a 2010 survey taken by 1,623 Korean women showed that 71.4 percent believed that promotional systems at their jobs placed women at a disadvantage. Luckily for Korean women, this situation is beginning to change, and the voice of feminism in South Korea is a larger driving force in politics, media, and everyday life than it was only fifty years ago—women are gaining political representation and beginning to experience equality in a persistent patriarchal culture.
The changes that have been taking place over these last years are not progressing as quickly as the changes in other countries, such as the United States, but they are progressing nonetheless. It is not often that one hears about feminism and women’s rights in other countries because it has become the norm for women in America to be equal in almost every field. We tend to dismiss news of small victories for women as old news.
What we do not realize is that not all women have the privileges that women in America do. Deeply rooted culture, religion, and philosophy in Korea have caused the scales to tip in favor of men. While progress has been made, sexism is still present in both the media and the minds of citizens, as shown by the opinions of our students. Education, work, and general discrimination against women, unfortunately, is still alive in South Korea, as is the ridiculing of both female and male feminists. Feminist author Joohyun Cho explains in her book Gender Identity Politics that early Korean feminists were not taken seriously, and that even in modern times feminists are sometimes shamed for their views. Luckily, this discrimination mainly occurs among the older generations and is not how the majority of young adults feel about equality. Jinsun gave us a first-hand account of this idea and showed us that young women are concerned for their futures in a male dominated society, but are hopeful about progress that can be made over the next few years.
While these highly visible traits make the distinction obvious, other ways these pictures divide gender are more subtle. First, the environment the children are placed in makes a bold statement. The girl is in her closet, surrounded by clothes, bows, and frills. Her posture is slightly bent to the side, in a cute, submissive way. The picture is very cramped, creating a slightly claustrophobic feeling. What is the little girl doing in her closet? It appears that she is thinking about what she is going to wear that day—so many cute things to choose from!
Now, how about the boy’s ad? In this photo, ships and planets surround him. He is clothed in futuristic clothing and gear. The deep realm of space stretches into infinity before him, and the boy has a strong, powerful stance, his back facing the camera. It seems as though he is pondering where to explore. Compared to the young boy’s thoughts, the girl’s seem petty and trivial.
We must ask ourselves: Is this what men think women dream of? Shoes and purses? Can only men be adventurers, scientists, and astronauts? While advertisements may not seem like a driving force behind gender inequality, the media does play a huge role, for better or for worse.
These two examples of Korean advertisement, along with countless others, were found in the English blog “The Grand Narrative,” which focuses on Korean sociology through gender, media, and popular culture. Written by James Turnbull, who currently resides in Korea, the blog has discussed South Korean feminism multiple times, stating that a lot of advertising, along with other aspects of Korean culture, is still discriminatory against females.
For example, a 2010 survey taken by 1,623 Korean women showed that 71.4 percent believed that promotional systems at their jobs placed women at a disadvantage. Luckily for Korean women, this situation is beginning to change, and the voice of feminism in South Korea is a larger driving force in politics, media, and everyday life than it was only fifty years ago—women are gaining political representation and beginning to experience equality in a persistent patriarchal culture.
The changes that have been taking place over these last years are not progressing as quickly as the changes in other countries, such as the United States, but they are progressing nonetheless. It is not often that one hears about feminism and women’s rights in other countries because it has become the norm for women in America to be equal in almost every field. We tend to dismiss news of small victories for women as old news.
What we do not realize is that not all women have the privileges that women in America do. Deeply rooted culture, religion, and philosophy in Korea have caused the scales to tip in favor of men. While progress has been made, sexism is still present in both the media and the minds of citizens, as shown by the opinions of our students. Education, work, and general discrimination against women, unfortunately, is still alive in South Korea, as is the ridiculing of both female and male feminists. Feminist author Joohyun Cho explains in her book Gender Identity Politics that early Korean feminists were not taken seriously, and that even in modern times feminists are sometimes shamed for their views. Luckily, this discrimination mainly occurs among the older generations and is not how the majority of young adults feel about equality. Jinsun gave us a first-hand account of this idea and showed us that young women are concerned for their futures in a male dominated society, but are hopeful about progress that can be made over the next few years.
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